Some time has elapsed since our tour of the mines of Potosí. What started out as a brief explanation of our curious experience has turned into something more in-depth. The more we wrote, the more we realised that we needed to write, in order to make sense in our minds of the history and complex issues surrounding the subject, and how we felt about the current predicament of the miners. This is therefore not the usual travel blog post but rather an extended article with which we hope to illuminate an issue about which very few people, at least in the West, are aware.
I am rich Potosí,
Treasure of the world.
The king of all mountains,
And the envy of all kings.
Potosí’s coat of arms.
During the procession of Corpus Christi in 1658, the cobblestones in the city centre of Potosí were replaced with bars of silver. This event gave rise to the legend that there was enough silver in Potosí to build a bridge all the way to Madrid. It has since also been noted that a macabre twin bridge could be built using the end to end bones of all those who have perished in the mines. In Don Quixote Cervantes coined the phrase to be “worth a Potosí”. But what has been the true cost of Potosí’s mines? We descended into the mouth of hell to investigate the mountain that eats men.
SOME HISTORY
The riches of the Cerro Rico are said to have been discovered by a native shepherd who was grazing his llamas on the mountain. The story goes that he lit a fire to keep warm and molten silver flowed from a vein in the rock. The shepherd wanted to exploit the silver for himself, but a friend who he had let in on the secret informed a conquistador. In 1545 the Cerro Rico was claimed for the Spanish crown and a tumultuous journey through history began for the unassuming mountain.
At first African slaves were brought in to mine the mountain; however they suffered greatly from the effects of the high altitude. Attention shifted to the indigenous population. The Spanish imposed the mita system of mandatory public service, borrowed from the Incas. Mita was slavery in all but name, with indigenous workers forced into hard labour for a pittance. Harsh working and living conditions (miners often had to live in the mines), exhaustion, accidents, silicosis (lung disease from dust inhalation) and mercury poisoning (used in the refining process) meant that chances of survival were very slim. Best estimates are that the mountain that eats men has devoured 8 million souls since the 1500s.
The discovery of the silver in Cerro Rico led to the rapid expansion of Potosí town. In the 16th century it was not only the largest city in the Americas but it also equalled those of the old world such as London and Amsterdam in both size and opulence. Potosí attracted a rabble of silver crazed Europeans and associated hanger-ons, and they used their wealth to build grand residences, dance halls and churches. There were also two royal mints in the city to brand the silver that was to be sent to Spain. At the time Spain was heavily in debt to other nations, and so the silver of Potosí helped to bank roll development across Europe. The Cerro Rico, along with the city of Potosí was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987, and the town displays a beautiful but sort of faded glory.
The decline of the Cerro Rico was due to a combination of factors, not least the exhaustion of the silver veins. Bolivia’s War of Independence, the two World Wars and The War of the Pacific in which Bolivia lost its export coastline to Chile all had an effect on the importance of the mines, those working there and export prices. There was also a worldwide decline in metal prices.
Nowadays the natural resources are running out and miners are protesting the closures of the mines. Parts of Cerro Rico are in danger of collapse. Historical underdevelopment means that the Potosí department is one of the 3 poorest in Bolivia, more than 60% of those living in Potosí do so in extreme poverty.
TOURISM
Today, the Cerro Rico still contains many active mines (around 15,000 miners work there daily) but, because of its history, is has also become a tourist attraction. This is in spite of the obvious ethical considerations of visiting a mine with such a bloody past (and present), where working conditions and security measures have not changed for centuries. It was not without some reservations that we decided to take an organised tour of the mine, in order to better understand the working conditions of the miners and the hardships that they are exposed to on a daily basis.
Some tour agencies in Potosí have a reputation for exploiting the mines and their workers, by organising tours that do not benefit them economically. We picked a tour with an agency called Koala Tours as the guides are ex-miners and 15% of their profits go to the mining community. This is an important supplement to the income of the miners as the mineral extractions have now shifted from silver and zinc to less valuable metals like tin, whose price is fluctuating.
OUR TOUR BEGINS
Our guide was Ronald, an ex miner who worked in the mine for a period of time when he was younger in order to help his father. A stout stoical man in his 30s, Ronald looked like he’s seen it all and then some. His eyes squinted as if he was used to being underground, and his teeth were discoloured from the coca leaves that he was constantly chewing. He was accompanied by a second ex-miner who was there for our safety, and to take anyone out of the mine if they felt ill or uncomfortable. There were six of us on the tour, so it felt like a good ratio of guide to ‘guest’.
The first stop of the tour involved going to a “changing room” on the outskirts of town where we were kitted out with protective clothing, what can only be described as wellies and a hard hat with battery-powered lamp. The mines are completely dark so the light is the only chance to see what’s ahead deep in the tunnels.
A short distance later and we were at the miners market, where it is customary for visitors to buy gifts for the miners. Astonishingly, miners, although belonging to the cooperatives that run the mines, need to buy basic items for themselves such as protective gear and mining equipment. Ronald explained that, far from seeing tourists as a nuisance, miners tend to appreciate them, as they supplement their income and provide them with essential tools that they need for their work. One of the most welcome gifts is dynamite, which anyone (including tourists) can buy freely from these markets at prices that can be prohibitive for the workers but are very low for westerners. Ronald also gave us an explanation on how to detonate the dynamite and how it is used by the miners to expand the tunnels and make the drilling and digging more manageable. Apart from dangerous explosives we were asked to buy soft drinks, cigarettes, high-proof cane alcohol (used in ceremonies) and, importantly, bags of coca leaves.
Coca leaves are a fundamental part of life in the mine as chewing them provides energy and enhances endurance for miners who often work 20 hours long shifts without breaks. Coca is also important as it acts as an appetite suppressant. Miners don’t eat whilst at work as they could also easily ingest huge quantities of dust which could lead to sickness and then time off work that they could ill afford. Throughout the whole tour, Ronald and the other miners we met constantly picked from their coca leaf bags, adding to the coca leaf balls tucked into the side of their mouths.
We were also shown the mines’ refining factory where the raw materials extracted from the mountain are pulverised and the valuable minerals are separated using chemicals. Ronald explained that apart from pulverising and separating materials, Bolivia doesn’t have the means to further process the minerals, and indeed the small plant looked quite antiquated. The products are exported mainly to Chile and Peru for further refining, processing, and use in manufacturing.
As the bus approached the Cerro Rico and made its way up to the entrance of one of the hundreds of mines still active in the mountain, we couldn’t help but be awed by the sheer scale of the operation. Truckloads of raw materials and human cargo steamed up and down the narrow dirt roads. The barren and lifeless landscape surrounding the mountain also really brought home the fact that the Cerro that has been exploited for centuries really defines the area. The constant exploration has completely altered the shape and height of a whole mountain that was once the richest in the world. To our astonishment Ronald told us that the mountain used to be 300 meters higher than its current 4702 meters before the mining commenced in the 1600s.
ENTERING THE MINES
“Abandon all hope, ye who enter here” read Dante upon entering the Inferno and a similar warning would not be out of place here, as most workers who still work the mine face very real economic and physical pain and hardship for as long as they work there, which in most cases is their entire life without any chance to leave.
THE TUNNELS
As we entered the mine, Ronald kept a quick pace and we soon found out why. We were entering on an active trolley track in a narrow tunnel and periodically a trolley would come hurtling along accompanied by its group of miners. Thanks to Ronald’s miner-senses, as soon as he heard a trolley coming, he would get us running to the next safe cranny or bend in the track. His assistant was at the back of the group to make sure that we were all safe. Even a trolley without ore weighs several tonnes, so this was a real danger.
The tunnels themselves had a lot of rubble and rubbish on the floor and the ceilings were low for us Westerners. We spent most of the time hunched over like Quasimodo, trying not to bang our heads on the rock above or the pneumatic tubes. The tunnels were very dusty and we were told to keep our bandanas over our mouths when the dust was stirred up. This, accompanied by high altitude and increasing temperature as we got deeper into the mine, made for heavy going. We were there in the dry season, we hate to think what it is like when it is cold and rainwater drips through the mountain.
The tunnels are also pitch black, there is no form of fixed artificial lighting. As you walk further and further into the tunnel from the entrance, darkness envelops you and you are forced to rely on the dim light emanating from your safety helmet and that of your fellow tour mates to see where you are going and what lies ahead of you. Historically, and even still today, miners would rely on small portable carbide lamps the flame of which would allow them to ‘read’ the gasses in different parts of the mine.
The further we progressed the more intricate the network of tunnels got, and we had to rely completely on Ronald for orientation. A mine in Cerro Rico is nothing but a maze with no map and a novice would almost certainly get lost with no hope of ever seeing the light again if not guided by an expert. By contrast, miners know these tunnels like the palm of their hands: they know their history and secrets as well as danger zones and also the workers who work in each area.
THE MINERS
Ronald introduced us to some of the miners who we happened across. Although some were of few words, they seemed content to take a breather and answer the questions that Ronald posed to them. Ronald also made sure that each mining group received one of our gifts, most often some refreshing fizzy pop. It seemed that many of them had started working in the mine as adolescents. We had indeed heard that there are child-miners who, because of circumstance, have to earn money in the mines. Miners now in their thirties, looked like much older men.
To our surprise, we encountered a group of miners spending their time off in the mine, drinking with their comrades. Some of these workers belonged to families of miners that had mined Cerro Rico for generations, and the mines are literally all they know. If all your relatives and friends are miners then it would be natural to form an attachment to the mine and develop a very strong sense of camaraderie.
BELIEFS
Deep inside the maze evidence of another factor which brings the miners together can be found. Throughout the Cerro there are shrines with crafted effigies of the devil-like Tío. Most miners are fervent Catholics but it is their belief that once you enter the mines you leave the realm of God and enter the realm of the Tío. The Tío is not exactly the devil, he is neither good nor evil, but he is the ruler of the mines and as such has the power to reward and to punish. Similar to with Pachamama, the mother earth figure in Andean belief, gifts are offered to the Tío in exchange for prosperity and safety. Cigarettes, coca leaves, and high-proof cane alcohol are the most popular gifts, and every Friday groups of miners gather around the shrines to celebrate, drink and ask for protection. Less frequently, there are ritual sacrifices of llamas to the blood thirsty Tío, so that he does not demand the blood of the miners instead.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN
The miners believe that it is bad luck for women to enter the mines, let alone work in them. This does not mean that women do not play a role in the life of the mountain. Aside from being wives and mothers, they often work on the mountain as guards for a collective’s section of the mine and cooks. There is some evidence of women sneaking into the mines to gather minerals, as a result of poverty and a need to provide for their families.
HEALTH & SAFETY
When we exited the mine, we blew our noses and they were absolutely filthy and bleeding after less than two hours in the mine. Miners are down there daily for many hours with no more protection than a bandana. This is how they get the disease of the lungs called silicosis. Most miners don’t live past their 40s due to this incurable disease. We encountered a group of miners who were using the pneumatic drill to make holes for dynamite. We watched the head of the group getting ready and whilst he did have a proper dust mask, it was clear that it was inadequate due to the age and state of the filters. He took them out and banged the dust out of them before carrying on.
Health and safety is a real concern in the tunnels, it is obvious that even if health and safety law exists, it is not rigorously followed. Most cooperatives are small and do not use much technology. The tunnels are held together precariously with ingeniously built wooden structures to support them. Stories of these structures collapsing are common and the yearly death tall in Cerro Rico is still high. Ronald revealed that seventeen people perished at work the year prior, but some reports say that the numbers are much higher.
Whilst there is no doubt that the mine is a dangerous environment, and we had to sign a disclaimer before we entered, we generally felt well looked after by Ronald and his assistant. Apart from the trolleys whizzing by and all of a sudden us having to double back and run to a safe place, there was only really one moment where we were quite frightened. In order to get to one part of the mine we had to shuffle along a ledge which was about 30cm wide. Not necessarily a problem, but we were informed that to our right was a 70m deep chasm! Obviously there were no handrails or precautions. Another frightening thought is that a lot of the miners are drunk. We came across one very woozy character who was quite merry – not the best state for a miner with a capacity to blow up a mountain to be in.
THE FATE OF THE MINER
The slump in mineral prices has hit the mining community hard and there is a real risk that the Cerro Rico may physically collapse. Attempts have been made to address a huge sinkhole at its summit but the need for the miners to continue working the highest part of the mountain has been an obstacle. It is President Evo Morales’ pledge to keep Bolivia’s natural resources for the benefit of the people and his core electorate can be found in the mining sector. It seems therefore that his government is reluctant to upset the collectives by forcing them out of the higher mines. But, it is obvious that if the miners are to have a future, the Cerro Rico must stay standing.
“We continue working, and we will continue, while they (the government) search for another place that allows us to support our families, we are not leaving.” Santiago Cruz Palomino, vice president of FEDECOMIN, Potosí’s organization of cooperative miners.
Miners have been striking this year to demand that the government make investments in infrastructure such as hospitals, roads and an airport. The community feels like not enough effort has been made to provide alternatives to mining and that without the mine the whole department will sink into destitution. There is the hope that tourism will be a budding sector, but it exists precisely because of the mine. Will anyone come to Potosí if the mine eventually collapses?
As a westerner looking in it would be easy to say that the government should close the mines down due to the appalling safety and working conditions. But, without the mine, what choices do workers in Potosí have? They are poorly educated and skilled (often already having come from the countryside, looking for a better life) and have little option as to what they can do to support their families. Mining is often an economic choice as it does provide a relatively high income compared to other types of work, including working in tourism. Investment in education for future generations certainly seems like a good start. Young people need to have skills and training so that they can have the chances that we take for granted, such as to travel away from their home town, and have a career in a different sector.
For some young people and children though, working in the mines is an inescapable reality, a cycle from which it is difficult to escape. If the head of the family works in the mines and dies, it is often his young son who is expected to replace him in order to support his family, sometimes even balancing work with school. Working in the mines not only puts food on the table, it can also provide school clothes and supplies. Sadly, although our vision of collectives evokes the power of the people, they do not all provide their members with equality of wages, health insurance, pensions and basic health and safety provisions.
HOW HAS THIS EXPERIENCE AFFECTED US AS TRAVELLERS?
The mines of Potosí are a particular type of experience led tourism, and it is likely that many backpackers and tourists will visit only in order to tick it off their list, or to be able to brag about having done something extreme. One should however be aware of the serious and real dangers posed by entering the mines due to their precarious state and a general lack of safety provisions. Anyone with issues with confined spaces or anxiety in general should carefully consider whether the tour is right for them.
Visiting the mine has made us think about how we define what a tourist attraction is. It is not always what is the most fun, historical, beautiful or comfortable, but that which provokes a response, and makes you want to learn something more about the subject or the country and its people. Writing about Potosí has been enlightening and we have a new appreciation of how important it is to make sure that this type of activity is really benefitting those which it affects in real life.
FURTHER RESOURCES
Articles from The Guardian
Film called the Devil’s Miner follows the story of a young boy working in the mine
http://www.thedevilsminer.com/index_new.html
Charity called Amigos De Potosí
http://www.amigosdePotosí.com/en/who-are-we/how-did-we-start-2
Hey leave a comment to this post, we are interested in your opinions!